A) expert chess-players are much better than novices at remembering random arrangements of chess pieces.
B) expert problem-solvers are more likely than novices to emphasize structural features in the representation of a problem.
C) experts and novices are similar in their usage of means-ends heuristics.
D) experts are skilled at judging whether a problem will be difficult for novices to solve.
F) C) and D)
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A) people pay too little attention to structural features.
B) people pay too little attention to surface features.
C) people select an inappropriate matrix to represent their understanding of the problem.
D) people perform an exhaustive search, which is a time-consuming approach to problem solving.
F) A) and B)
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A) Structural features
B) Surface features
C) Schematic features
D) Algorithms
F) B) and D)
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A) people choose the most direct route at every choice point, even though an indirect route may be better in the long run.
B) people are inefficient in dividing the problem into the appropriate subproblems.
C) people typically show functional fixedness.
D) people are too likely to move backwards, rather than forwards.
F) All of the above
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A) novices use parallel processing more than experts do.
B) experts use parallel processing more than novices do.
C) when researchers have controlled for the kind of problem that is being solved, experts and novices make similar use of parallel processing.
D) both experts and novices make too much use of parallel processing.
F) A) and C)
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A) Carrie: "Expert problem solvers tend to emphasize top-down processing because this framework provides the best overview of the problem."
B) María Elena: "Expert problem solvers use their knowledge (top-down processing) , but they also attend to the unique features of the problem (bottom-up processing) ."
C) Raoul: "The basic problem is that experts consistently overuse bottom-up processing, and they ignore top-down processing."
D) Herbie: "Experts make too much use of bottom-up processing; novices make too much use of top-down processing."
F) B) and C)
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A) they are low in self-efficacy.
B) they are low in intrinsic motivation.
C) they are high in intrinsic motivation
D) they are high in extrinsic motivation.
F) B) and C)
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A) Asian women perform relatively well if their ethnicity is emphasized before they begin the math test.
B) Asian women perform relatively well if their gender is emphasized before they begin the math test.
C) European American women are not aware of stereotypes, and so they perform better than Asian women.
D) There were no ethnic or gender differences in this study, showing that stereotypes in these two areas are no longer relevant in math problem solving.
F) B) and C)
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A) can only be used when you represent the problem in terms of visual imagery.
B) is one of the most sophisticated problem-solving heuristics.
C) is often used if you do not have information on how to reach your goal, so you select the best option at each choice point.
D) is especially helpful when a problem requires you to move backwards in order to eventually move forwards.
F) A) and B)
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A) people typically use at least twice as many symbols as they need.
B) people usually construct a hierarchical tree diagram, even though they intended to use symbols.
C) people insert the symbols into the wrong matrix.
D) people have trouble translating words into the appropriate symbols.
F) None of the above
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A) you need to keep the important parts of the problem in your mind while working on the problem.
B) these problems usually involve objects that have different shapes and sizes, so it's naturally a difficult task.
C) these problems do not use the phonological loop, so it's especially difficult to discover the solution.
D) people often miss the obvious solution, and they therefore have to try again.
F) B) and D)
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A) You may experience divided attention because of distracting ideas.
B) If it is a real-world problem, divided attention is not likely to present a problem.
C) If it is a real-world problem, the appropriate part of the problem-the part that requires attention-should be obvious.
D) Although attention is important in problem solving, good problem solvers and poor problem solvers do not differ in their ability to pay attention to specific inconsistencies.
F) A) and C)
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A) to perform a task the same way that a human would.
B) to perform a task that matches the minimum performance of a human problem solver.
C) to use algorithms, but not heuristics.
D) to solve a problem as efficiently as possible.
F) All of the above
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A) functional fixedness.
B) bottom-up processing.
C) stereotype threat.
D) intrinsic motivation.
F) None of the above
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A) a fixed mindset.
B) use of an algorithm.
C) overcoming functional fixedness.
D) the means-end analysis heuristic.
F) All of the above
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A) Delmer: "Our metacognitions are typically more accurate for insight problems than for noninsight problems."
B) Midori: "Students are not able to predict how well they are doing on a wide variety of problem-solving tasks."
C) Saundra: "On insight problems, our confidence increases suddenly; on noninsight problems, our confidence builds up gradually."
D) Steve: "Students typically have a feeling that they know the solution when they are several steps away from solving a problem-whether the problem is an insight problem or a noninsight problem."
F) C) and D)
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A) visual images can be nontraditional, so they are sometimes more helpful than symbols and other methods of representing a problem.
B) surprisingly, people who are high in visual-imagery abilities are no more likely than other people to use imagery effectively during problem solving.
C) visual imagery is helpful only if problem solvers are initially instructed to visualize a familiar object.
D) a disadvantage to visual imagery is that it can only be used if you have a clear idea about the solution to the problem.
F) All of the above
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A) mental set is an overreliance on bottom-up processing.
B) mental set is especially helpful when you are trying to solve a problem creatively.
C) people may produce inferior problem solutions if they are shown examples of possible solutions before they try to solve the problem.
D) mental sets neither help nor hinder problem solving.
F) All of the above
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A) parallel processing.
B) insight.
C) mental set.
D) problem isomorphs.
F) C) and D)
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A) when they are well trained in means-ends analysis.
B) when they have been trained to pay attention to structural similarities.
C) when they are working on an ill-defined problem.
D) when they are trying to solve a problem that is unrelated to other problems they have recently solved.
F) A) and C)
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